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July 18, 2025 

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ZERO-BASE BUDGET: A method of budgeting expenditures in which each expenditure is justified on its overall merits rather than being based on the budget for the previous year. A zero-base budget is most often proposed (but seldom implemented) for governments. Governments generally establish budget expenditures based on expenditures for the previous year. If, for example, budget expenditures last year were $100 billion, the requested budget for this year might be set at $110 billion. The existing $100 billion is a "given" and only the extra $10 billion is justified. With a zero-base budget, the entire $110 billion is justified.

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AVERAGE-COST PRICING: A regulatory policy used for public utilities (especially those that are natural monopolies) in which the price received by a firm is set equal to the average total cost of production. The great thing about average-cost pricing is that a regulated public utility is guaranteed a normal profit, usually termed a fair rate of return. One bad thing about average-cost pricing is that marginal cost is less than average total cost meaning that price is greater than marginal cost. As such, the public utility is NOT operating according to the price equals marginal cost (P = MC) rule of efficiency.

     See also | regulatory policy | public utility | natural monopoly | firm | price | average total cost | normal profit | efficiency | marginal-cost pricing |


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GOVERNMENT PURCHASES

Expenditures made by the government sector on final goods and services, or gross domestic product. Government purchases are used to buy the goods and services needed to operate the government (such as administrative salaries) and to provide public goods (including national defense, highway construction). These purchases are one of two major categories of government spending, the other is transfer payments. Government purchases are financed by a mix of taxes and borrowing and are categorized by the three levels of government: federal, state, and local governments. These are one of four expenditures on gross domestic product. The other three are consumption expenditures, investment expenditures, and net exports.

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The portion of aggregate output U.S. citizens pay in taxes (30%) is less than the other six leading industrialized nations -- Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, or Japan.
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