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HDI: An abbreviation of the Human Development Index, whichn is a summary composite index that measures a country's average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: longevity, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge is measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio; and standard of living is measured by GDP per capita. The Human Development Index (HDI), reported in the Human Development Report of the United Nations, is an indication of where a country is development wise. The index can take value between 0 and 1. Countries with an index over 0.800 are part of the High Human Development group. Between 0.500 and 0.800, countries are part of the Medium Human Development group and below 0.500 they are part of the Low Human Development group.
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                           TAX EFFECTS: The primary reason that governments collect taxes from members of society is to finance government operations and provide public goods. However, taxes also create disincentives to engage in the taxed activity, which causes a change in the allocation of resources. This two consequences of taxes are summarized in two essential tax effects -- the revenue effect and the allocation effect. While all taxes have both, the key to effective government is minimize the allocation effect if the goal is to generate revenue and to minimize the revenue effect if the goal is to change the allocation of resources. Governments collect taxes. They collect all sorts of taxes for all sorts of reasons. They collect taxes on eating, sleeping, driving, and working, that is, sales taxes (on food), motel taxes (on sleeping accommodations), fuel taxes (on gasoline), and payroll taxes (on employee wages). Finding an activity that is NOT subject to taxation is by no means easy.One reason for the preponderance different taxes is that taxes are imposed for two basic reasons. The first is the revenue effect, the use of taxes to generate revenue needed by governments to finance government operations and provide public goods. The second is the allocation effect, the use of taxes to create disincentives and change the allocation of resources. In a perfect world, governments could impose taxes that generate revenue, but have absolutely no allocation effect. Or governments could use taxes to alter the allocation of resources (presumably to improve efficiency), that have no revenue effect. In the real world, though, taxes have both effects. In our imperfect world, governments must balance the two effects. In some cases governments do an effective job of balancing the two and in other cases they don't. Revenue EffectThe primary reason governments impose taxes is to generate the revenue used to finance the operation of government, most notably the provision of public goods. That is, taxes transfer purchasing power from members of society to governments. Taxes give governments command over society's resources. Governments need this command over resources to build highways, defend the nation, educate the population, and maintain the legal system. Allocation EffectA second reason governments impose taxes is to change the allocation of resources. Because people would rather not pay taxes, taxes create disincentives to produce, consume, and exchange. If society deems that a particular good, such as alcohol, pollution, or cigarettes, is "bad," then a tax can reduce its production and consumption, and thus change the allocation of resources.Conflicting GoalsWhile governments might impose taxes for one reason or the other, all taxes have both effects. A tax intended to generate revenue changes the allocation of resources. A tax intended to change the allocation of resources generates revenue. However, different taxes achieve the two effects to different degrees. Ideally, governments want revenue generated by taxes with little allocation effect. And when governments impose taxes to discourage a particular activity, success entails little revenue effect.The key to generating revenue is to identify taxes that have very little allocation effect. This is best achieved with broad-based taxes that create the same degree of disincentives for all types of goods and activities. For example, imposing a sales tax on ALL goods and services is better than one on ONLY soft drinks. A more specific soft drink sales tax motivates people to buy fewer soft drinks and more of other goods, which then reduces the generation of revenue. A broader sales tax on ALL goods entails fewer options for switching to other goods. If everything is taxed, it matters not what your buy, you still have to pay the tax. On the other side of the incentive picture, some taxes originally created to change the allocation of resources are too good at generating revenue. Governments might come to rely on this revenue and even act to "encourage" the revenue-generating activity. Common examples include "speeding traps" or "parking tickets" that might be used by local governments more to finance their operations than to discourage traffic violations. And in some circumstances, governments justify a tax with the allocation effect, knowing that very little disincentive is created, and the primary consequence is to generate revenue. Common examples are taxes on liquor and cigarettes.
Recommended Citation:TAX EFFECTS, AmosWEB Encyclonomic WEB*pedia, http://www.AmosWEB.com, AmosWEB LLC, 2000-2024. [Accessed: September 19, 2024].
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Today, you are likely to spend a great deal of time flipping through mail order catalogs looking to buy either a wall poster commemorating yesterday or pink cotton balls. Be on the lookout for the last item on a shelf.
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